TOEFL чтение тест №2

Directions

In this section, you will read three passages and answer reading comprehension questions about each passage. Most questions are worth one point, but the last question in each set is worth more than one point. The directions indicate how many points you may receive.
You have 60 minutes to read all of the passages and answer the questions. Some passages include a word or phrase followed by an asterisk (*). Go to the bottom of the page to see a definition or an explanation of these words or phrases.

Questions 1-12

Panspermia

The idea that life did not originate on Earth, but was carried here either deliberately or by natural processes, has its roots at least as far back as the ancient Greeks. This idea, often referred to as panspermia, took on a scientific form in the work of various nineteenth-century authors. It later gained widespread popular appeal through the work of the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius, who argued that spores of life could survive in space and travel between star systems through the pressure of solar radiation.
The panspermia hypothesis eventually fell out of favor for a variety of reasons. Skeptics pointed out that microorganisms could not possibly survive the damage caused by ultraviolet radiation and cosmic rays while being propelled out of a solar system away from a star. Indeed, it was unclear how biological material could escape from a planet by natural processes in the first place. If unprotected, the molecules of life would quickly be destroyed by radiation near the ejecting planet. Furthermore, it was not clear how microorganisms, having made a journey across the huge distances of interstellar space, could have safely descended to the surface of the Earth or any other planet. Arrhenius himself argued that organisms caught inside meteorites would be subjected to incandescent* temperatures while entering the atmosphere of a terrestrial body. Such heat would destroy any life-forms lucky enough to have survived to this point.
Despite the seeming implausibility* of the panspermia hypothesis, some theorists have resurrected the notion in recent decades since laboratory research has shown that many of the objections to the hypothesis can be overcome. Scientists have shown that microorganisms protected from radiation by grains of material could be ejected from a solar system if the repulsive force (p) of the ejecting star is greater than the attractive force (g) of the star's gravity. Such ejecting stars cannot be too luminous since brighter stars emit too much ultraviolet radiation for the survival of bacteria. Organisms can only enter new solar systems whose stars' p/g ratio is low, thus allowing the gravity to pull the microbes into the planetary orbits. According to some researchers, material ejected from a planetary system could also eventually become part of an interstellar molecular cloud, which eventually produces a new planetary system as well as a large number of comets. Comets can retain microorganisms protected by other material and water, and impact onto new planets, which by then would have cooled sufficiently for the life in the grains to take hold.
Further supporting evidence about the likelihood of survival of bacteria traveling through space and entering a planetary atmosphere has been gained from studies of a meteorite of Martian origin found in Antarctica in 1984. Whether or not the meteorite contains fossils of Martian bacteria (and many researchers now seem to reject this possibility), microscopic studies of its internal structure have shown that the interior was not heated to more than 40 degrees Celsius since before leaving the Martian surface. In other words, neither the original impact that must have ejected the rock away from the Martian surface nor the heat generated by its entry into the Earth's atmosphere did, in fact, melt or vaporize the internal portions of the meteorite. So it is quite possible that any life-form that had undergone such a trip would survive. As for the long journey itself, experiments aboard a European Space Agency mission have shown that bacterial spores can survive in deep space for at least five years. This is sufficient time for viable interplanetary travel, although not, of course, for interstellar travel.
Today, the panspermia hypothesis is being regarded with less skepticism than formerly. Although the orthodox view is still that life evolved on Earth (and possibly other planets in the universe) without extraterrestrial input, more and more research is pointing to the feasibility of some form of interstellar "seeding". Wickramasinghe and Hoyle, who championed the hypothesis of the interstellar transmission of life during the 1970s, argued persuasively that prebiotic chemicals have been shown to exist by remote sensing data of Comet Halley. Furthermore, they point out that evidence for viable microorganisms existing in comets could be attained in the near future if unmanned space missions could capture and return to Earth with cometary material.

*incandescent: producing a bright light after being heated to a high temperature
*implausibility: the condition of being difficult to believe

1. Early supporters of the panspermia hypothesis rejected the main elements of the hypothesis argued that some primitive life has been detected on a comet pointed out that space missions will find life elsewhere suggested that the "seeds" of life may have been deliberately planted

[Refer to the full passage.]

2. The word propelled in the passage is closest in meaning to rejected plunged heaved thrust

The panspermia hypothesis eventually fell out of favor for a variety of reasons. Skeptics pointed out that microorganisms could not possibly survive the damage caused by ultraviolet radiation and cosmic rays while being propelled out of a solar system away from a star. Indeed, it was unclear how biological material could escape from a planet by natural processes in the first place. If unprotected. the molecules of life would quickly be destroyed by radiation near the ejecting planet. Furthermore, it was not clear how microorganisms, having made a journey across the huge distances of interstellar space, could have safely descended to the surface of the Earth or any other planet. Arrhenius himself argued that organisms caught inside meteorites would be subjected to incandescent temperatures while entering the atmosphere of a terrestrial body. Such heat would destroy any life-forms lucky enough to have survived to this point.

3. According to the passage, the panspermia hypothesis fell out of favor for all of the following reasons EXCEPT the potential damage caused by ultraviolet radiation the unlikelihood of natural processes leading to the ejection of biological material the probability that heat would destroy incoming life-forms the knowledge that life can't exist elsewhere in the universe

[Refer to the full passage.]

4. The word "resurrected" in the passage is closest in meaning to destroyed reintroduced initiated succeeded

Despite the seeming implausibility of the panspermia hypothesis, some theorists have resurrected the notion in recent decades since laboratory research has shown that many of the objections to the hypothesis can be overcome. Scientists have shown that microorganisms protected from radiation by grains of material could be ejected from a solar system if the repulsive force (p) of the ejecting star is greater than the attractive force (g) of the star's gravity. Such ejecting stars cannot be too luminous since brighter stars emit too much ultraviolet radiation for the survival of bacteria. Organisms can only enter new solar systems whose stars' p/g ratio is low, thus allowing the gravity to pull the microbes into the planetary orbits. According to some researchers, material ejected from a planetary system could also eventually become part of an interstellar molecular cloud, which eventually produces a new planetary system as well as a large number of comets. Comets can retain microorganisms protected by other material and water, and impact onto new planets, which by then would have cooled sufficiently for the life in the grains to take hold.

5. The word "retain" in the passage is closest in meaning to prevent erode avert keep

Despite the seeming implausibility of the panspermia hypothesis, some theorists have resurrected the notion in recent decades since laboratory research has shown that many of the objections to the hypothesis can be overcome. Scientists have shown that microorganisms protected from radiation by grains of material could be ejected from a solar system if the repulsive force (p) of the ejecting star is greater than the attractive force (g) of the star's gravity. Such ejecting stars cannot be too luminous since brighter stars emit too much ultraviolet radiation for the survival of bacteria. Organisms can only enter new solar systems whose stars' p/g ratio is low, thus allowing the gravity to pull the microbes into the planetary orbits. According to some researchers, material ejected from a planetary system could also eventually become part of an interstellar molecular cloud, which eventually produces a new planetary system as well as a large number of comets. Comets can retain microorganisms protected by other material and water, and impact onto new planets, which by then would have cooled sufficiently for the life in the grains to take hold.

6. According to the passage, the panspermia hypothesis is of historical interest only being taken seriously again not really good science probably true

[Refer to the full passage.]

7. The word "its" the passage refers to the Martian the bacteria the meteorite the interior

Further supporting evidence about the likelihood of survival of bacteria traveling through space and entering a planetary atmosphere has been gained from studies of a meteorite of Martian origin found in Antarctica in 1984. Whether or not the meteorite contains fossils of Martian bacteria (and many researchers now seem to reject this possibility), microscopic studies of its internal structure have shown that the interior was not heated to more than 40 degrees Celsius since before leaving the Martian surface. In other words, neither the original impact that must have ejected the rock away from the Martian surface nor the heat generated by its entry into the Earth's atmosphere did, in fact, melt or vaporize the internal portions of the meteorite. So it is quite possible that аnу life-form that had undergone such a trip would survive. As for the long journey itself, experiments aboard a European Space Agency mission have shown that bacterial spores can survive in deep space for at least five years. This is sufficient time for viable interplanetary travel, although not, of course, for interstellar travel.

8. The phrase "such a trip" in the passage refers to a journey from Mars to Earth the descent through Earth's atmosphere a trip from another solar system interstellar traveling

Further supporting evidence about the likelihood of survival of bacteria traveling through space and entering a planetary atmosphere has been gained from studies of a meteorite of Martian origin found in Antarctica in 1984. Whether or not the meteorite contains fossils of Martian bacteria (and many researchers now seem to reject this possibility), microscopic studies of its internal structure have shown that the interior was not heated to more than 40 degrees Celsius since before leaving the Martian surface. In other words, neither the original impact that must have ejected the rock away from the Martian surface nor the heat generated by its entry into the Earth's atmosphere did, in fact, melt or vaporize the internal portions of the meteorite. So it is quite possible that any life-form that had undergone such a trip would survive. As for the long journey itself, experiments aboard a European Space Agency mission have shown that bacterial spores can survive in deep space for at least five years. This is sufficient time for viable interplanetary travel, although not, of course, for interstellar travel.

9. According to the passage, the meteorite found in Antarctica does not contain bacteria fossils might contain bacteria fossils has fossils originating on Earth could not originate from Mars

[Refer to the full passage.]

10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. Nowadays, the panspermia hypothesis has been more or less rejected. Currently, the panspermia hypothesis is looked on with more astonishment than previously. These days, the panspermia hypothesis is judged more plausible than before. The modern scientific establishment now generally accepts the validity of the panspermia hypothesis.

Today, the panspermia hypothesis is being regarded with less skepticism than formerly. Although the orthodox view is still that life evolved on Earth (and possibly other planets in the universe) without extraterrestrial input, more and more research is pointing to the feasibility of some form of interstellar "seeding." Wickramasinghe and Hoyle, who championed the hypothesis of the interstellar transmission of life during the 1970s, argued persuasively that prebiotic chemicals have been shown to exist by remote sensing data of Comet Halley. Furthermore, they point out that evidence for viable microorganisms existing in comets could be attained in the near future if unmanned space missions could capture and return to Earth with cometary material.

11. Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. However, even if organisms were somehow shielded inside fine grains of carbon they would be too heavy to be ejected from a planetary system by the pressure of radiation. Where would the sentence best fit? Choose the letter of the square that shows where the sentence should be added. A B C D

The panspermia hypothesis eventually fell out of favor for a variety of reasons. [A] Skeptics pointed out that microorganisms could not possibly survive the damage caused by ultraviolet radiation and cosmic rays while being propelled out of a solar system away from a star. Indeed. it was unclear how biological material could escape from a planet by natural processes in the first place. [B] If unprotected, the molecules of life would quickly be destroyed by radiation near the ejecting planet. [C] Furthermore, it was not clear how microorganisms, having made a journey across the huge distances of interstellar space, could have safely descended to the surface of the Earth or any other planet. [D] Arrhenius himself argued that organisms caught inside meteorites would be subjected to incandescent* temperatures while entering the atmosphere of a terrestrial body. Such heat would destroy any life-forms lucky enough to have survived to this point.

12. Directions: Select the appropriate phrases from the answer choices and match them to the category to which they relate. THREE of the answer choices will NOT be used. This question is worth 4 points. Write the letters of the answer choices in the spaces where they belong. Refer to the full passage.

Answer Choices A) Prebiotic chemicals exist in comets. B) Bright stars emit a lot of ultraviolet radiation. C) Distances in interstellar space are huge. D) Comets are made up of water and other materials. E) Interstellar space has ultraviolet radiation and cosmic rays. F) Meteorites are subjected to burning temperatures when entering Earth's atmosphere. G) Meteorites from Mars have been found on Earth in areas of Antarctica where the cold temperatures protected life-forms. H) The meteorite found in Antarctica contained frozen fossils. I) Bacterial spores have been shown capable of surviving for several years in space. J) Stars with a repulsive force greater than their attractive force are able to eject material.

Arguments Against Panspermia Hypothesis * * * Support for Panspermia Hypothesis * * * *

Questions 13-25

Ocean Energy Systems

In recent years, the oceans have been seen as a potential source of energy. Oceans are huge reservoirs of renewable energy, which have yet to be properly harnessed*. Some estimates say that during the second decade of this century, ocean energy sources will generate more than 1,000 megawatts of electricity, which is enough to power a million homes in the industrialized world. Several technologies have been developed for exploiting these resources in a practical way, among which ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is one of the most promising. Experimental OTEC plants have been constructed using different operating principles, although as yet no large-scale commercially viable plant has been launched.
The basic operation behind this system uses the heat energy stored in the oceans as a source of power. The plant exploits the difference in water temperature between the warm surface waters heated by the sun and the colder waters found at ocean depths. A minimum temperature difference of 20 degrees Celsius between surface and depth is required for efficient operation, and this situation is typically found only in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. There are two basic kinds of OTEC system: the open cycle system and the closed cycle system. In the open cycle system, the warm surface water is converted into steam in a partial vacuum and this steam drives a turbine connected to an electrical generator. In a closed cycle system, the warm surface water is used to boil a fluid, such as ammonia, which has a low boiling point. In both systems cold water pumped up from the ocean depths condenses the vapor. In the open system, the steam is condensed back into a liquid by cold water pumped from deep-ocean water and then discharged. In the closed system, the condensed ammonia is used to repeat the cycle continuously. Various hybrid systems using characteristics of both open and closed cycle plants have also been designed.
The OTEC system is potentially an important source of clean, renewable energy, which could significantly reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and nuclear fission. Unlike other forms of renewable energy, such as those provided directly by the sun and wind, OTEC plants can generate power 24 hours per day, 365 days per year. Furthermore, the design of this technology avoids any significant release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. OTEC can offer other important benefits apart from power production. Aquaculture is one important spinoff. It may also be economically feasible to extract minerals from the pumped seawater. Freshwater for drinking and irrigation is another by-product, and this will be an important advantage in regions where freshwater is limited.
Some drawbacks to this form of power generation have been noted. Perhaps the biggest drawback at present is the high capital cost of initial construction due mainly to the expense of the large pipeline used to pump water from 1,000 meters below the surface. Furthermore, the conversion of thermal to electrical energy in the OTEC system works at very low efficiency, which means that these plants will have to use a lot of water to generate practical amounts for the power grid. For this reason, the net power output is reduced, since a significant portion of the output must be used to pump water. There are also potential ecological drawbacks, since the water discharges will change the water temperature and disturb some marine habitats. This impact could, however, be minimized if the water is discharged at greater depths.
The main obstacle created by high initial expenses will have to be met before OTEC competes with conventional alternatives, and until such time, OTEC will remain restricted to experimental plants. When technology permits lower start-up costs, this technology will make an important contribution to world energy requirements.

*harnessed: controlled for use

13. The word "viable" in the passage is closest in meaning to clever feasible optimistic convenient

In recent years, the oceans have been seen as a potential source of energy. Oceans are huge reservoirs of renewable energy, which have yet to be properly harnessed. Some estimates say that during the second decade of this century, ocean energy sources will generate more than 1,000 megawatts of electricity, which is enough to power a million homes in the industrialized world. Several technologies have been developed for exploiting these resources in a practical way, among which ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is one of the most promising. Experimental OTEC plants have been constructed using different operating principles, although as yet no large-scale commercially viable plant has been launched.

14. It can be inferred from the passage that renewable energy can be put into reservoirs the experimental plants are ready to be launched the oceans could be used in the future to generate electricity 1,000 megawatts of electricity is the amount needed in the average home

[Refer to the full passage.]

15. According to the passage, what can be inferred about the factor that allows the ocean to be used as an energy source? The oceans are so large that they can produce a lot of energy. In polar climates, the sun does not sufficiently heat the deeper water for practical energy use. The oceans can store vast amounts of heat energy to be used to run basic electricity plants. The plants are typically found in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world because of the warm weather.

[Refer to the full passage.]

16. According to the passage, in what way are the basic kinds of OTEC systems similar? They turn surface water into steam. They use cold water to cause condensation. They discharge unused water into the ocean. They convert water in a vacuum.

[Refer to the full passage.]

17. The phrase "other forms" in the passage refers to energy produced through fossil fuels and nuclear fission chemical reactions OTEC systems sun and wind

The OTEC system is potentially an important source of clean, renewable energy, which could significantly reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and nuclear fission. Unlike other forms of renewable energy, such as those provided directly by the sun and wind, OTEC plants can generate power 24 hours per day, 365 days per year. Furthermore, the design of this technology avoids any significant release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. OTEC can offer other important benefits apart from power production. Aquaculture is one important spinoff. It may also be economically feasible to extract minerals from the pumped seawater. Freshwater for drinking and irrigation is another by-product, and this will be an important advantage in regions where freshwater is limited.

18. In paragraph 3, what can be inferred about the different sources of energy? We rely too much on fossil fuels and nuclear fission. Renewable energy releases a lot of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Energy from OTEC is provided directly by the sun and wind. Energy forms other than OTEC do not have important benefits. Paragraph 3 is marked with an arrow [->].

->The OTEC system is potentially an important source of clean, renewable energy, which could significantly reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and nuclear fission. Unlike other forms of renewable energy, such as those provided directly by the sun and wind, OTEC plants can generate power 24 hours per day, 365 days per year. Furthermore. the design of this technology avoids any significant release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. OTEC can offer other important benefits apart from power production. Aquaculture is one important spinoff. It may also be economically feasible to extract minerals from the pumped seawater. Freshwater for drinking and irrigation is another by-product, and this will be an important advantage in regions where freshwater is limited.

19. In paragraph 3, why does the author write about aquaculture and mineral extractions? To give examples of possible developments related to OTEC To demonstrate what other activities can be done in the ocean To point out OTEC's advantages in regions of limited resources To show how the environment can be improved by using clean, renewable energy Paragraph 3 is marked with an arrow [->].

-> The OTEC system is potentially an important source of clean, renewable energy, which could significantly reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and nuclear fission. Unlike other forms of renewable energy, such as those provided directly by the sun and wind, OTEC plants can generate power 24 hours per day, 365 days per year. Furthermore, the design of this technology avoids any significant release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. OTEC can offer other important benefits apart from power production. Aquaculture is one important spinoff. It may also be economically feasible to extract minerals from the pumped seawater. Freshwater for drinking and irrigation is another by-product, and this will be an important advantage in regions where freshwater is limited.

20. According to the passage, all of the following are problems with the OTEC system as a power-generating system EXCEPT the costs of constructing the power system the damage caused to fishing grounds the effect of discharged water on the environment the amount of water needed to produce a useful amount of electricity

[Refer to the full passage.]

21. The word "conventional" in the passage is closest in meaning to conservative traditional tentative natural

The main obstacle created by high initial expenses will have to be met before OTEC competes with conventional alternatives, and until such time, OTEC will remain restricted to experimental plants. When technology permits lower startup costs, this technology will make an important contribution to world energy requirements.

22. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. Water outflow temperatures could upset local marine life. Water discharges will disturb the ecology of the oceans. The OTEC system has a tendency to upset marine environments. Outflows of water will affect the ocean temperature at great depths.

Some drawbacks to this form of power generation have been noted. Perhaps the biggest drawback at present is the high capital cost of initial construction due mainly to the expense of the large pipeline used to pump water from 1.000 meters below the surface. Furthermore, the conversion of thermal to electrical energy in the OTEC system works at very low efficiency, which means that these plants will have to use a lot of water to generate practical amounts for the power grid. For this reason, the net power output is reduced, since a significant portion of the output must be used to pump water. There are also potential ecological drawbacks, since the water discharges will change the water temperature and disturb some marine habitats. This impact could, however, be minimized if the water is discharged at greater depths.

23. Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the author's opinion about OTEC technology? OTEC will eventually supply most of the world's energy needs. The disadvantages of OTEC energy outweigh its advantages. OTEC technology has a useful role to play in total energy production. Only very large OTEC plants can be made efficient.

[Refer to the full passage.]

24. Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. The nutrient-rich cold water is an excellent medium for growing phytoplankton, which provide support for various commercially exploitable fish and shellfish. Where would the sentence best fit? Choose the letter of the square that shows where the sentence should be added. A B C D

The OTEC system is potentially an important source of clean, renewable energy, which could significantly reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and nuclear fission. [A] Unlike other forms of renewable energy, such as those provided directly by the sun and wind, OTEC plants can generate power 24 hours per day, 365 days per year. Furthermore, the design of this technology avoids any significant release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. OTEC can offer other important benefits apart from power production. [B] Aquaculture is one important spinoff. [C] It may also be economically feasible to extract minerals from the pumped seawater. [D] Freshwater for drinking and irrigation is another by-product, and this will be an important advantage in regions where freshwater is limited.

25. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by circling the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Write the tetters of the answer choices in the spaces where they belong. Refer to the full passage. The OTEC system of power generation is a promising source of energy. * * * Answer Choices A) OTEC systems use ocean temperature differences at different climates to create a significant amount of energy. B) OTEC systems can produce clean, renewable energy without harmful environmental effects. C) The OTEC system's pump would require a significant amount of energy of the total output. D) OTEC plants can produce more than enough electricity to supply over a million energy users. E) The OTEC system can generate power nonstop, unlike other renewable resources like sun and wind energy. F) The OTEC system has the added benefit of providing nutritious cold water suitable for fish production.

Questions 26-39

Neolithic Agriculture Development

In the Neolithic period, starting around 10,000 years ago, perhaps the most important economic revolution in human history occurred - the commencement of agriculture and the domestication of animals for human consumption. From this point in time, people could start to rely on a more consistent and much increased food supply. As a corollary of this, considerably larger populations could be supported and people could settle in one place without the need to migrate in search of food supplies. Equally important, the surpluses of crops and animals meant that not all the population needed to dedicate their time and energy to farming; some could now learn specialized skills such as crafts or trade. The building of permanent settlements where skills could be developed brought about the conditions necessary for the first growth of towns. But several thousand years elapsed between the beginnings of agriculture and the rise of what we call civilization about 6,000 years ago.
Recent evidence seems to indicate that while the Neolithic revolution first took place in the Middle East - in the valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates and of the Nile - it occurred independently in other areas of the world. The origins of the revolution are not known in great detail, but it is known that the wild grasses that were the ancestors of wheat and barley grew natively in the Eastern Mediterranean area. It may be that Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) foragers* simply supplemented their diet by reaping these wild grasses, and later came to understand the advantage of returning some of the grain to the soil as seed. Whatever the case, we know that at an early date people living in the Eastern Mediterranean region, who lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering, began to make sickles, with stone teeth set in bone handles. Such tools were certainly used for reaping some grass crop, whether cultivated or wild.
Around this time, other communities in the Middle East cultivated plants from which they learned how to obtain flour. Evidence shows that they ground down the grain with a simple type of mill, consisting of a large saddle-shaped stone on which a smaller stone was rubbed up and down. The livestock they bred - cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats - was exploited for their meat, skins, and milk.
Both in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the periodic floods of great rivers such as the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates not only supplied water to the fields but also brought down fresh soil in the form of fertile muddy sediments. This sediment was deposited on flood plains around such rivers, thus annually restoring the fruitfulness of the land. This regular flooding and sediment deposit allowed these early farmers to continue cultivating the same fields repeatedly for generations without exhausting the fertility of the soil, and crop surpluses were, therefore, available to allow an increase in population and a growth in trade and skills development. The area available for cultivation was expanded when people learned to draw off the river water into man-made irrigation canals and ditches, watering and fertilizing larger and larger areas of land.
The practice of artificial irrigation affected the soil in various ways, but not always for the good. Since the channels were often shallow, there was frequently a great loss of water through evaporation in a hot climate. This could lead to a marked increase in soil salinity. since the salts held in solution or suspension were deposited as the water evaporated, and too much salinity could eventually damage the soil. But overall the effect of the irrigation system was to create an artificial environment - and to some extent an artificial climate - with a range of conditions that favored both human experiment and agricultural development. Beyond this, settled agriculture led to the development of property rights and hence to a legal framework and mechanisms to enforce laws. This in turn led to a more extensive and hierarchical government organization and hence to the development of large, stable communities.

*foragers: people who go searching for food

26. The word "corollary" in the passage is closest in meaning to basis result source purpose

In the Neolithic period, starting around 10,000 years ago, perhaps the most important economic revolution in human history occurred - the commencement of agriculture and the domestication of animals for human consumption. From this point in time, people could start to rely on a more consistent and much increased food supply. As a corollary of this, considerably larger populations could be supported and people could settle in one place without the need to migrate in search of food supplies. Equally important, the surpluses of crops and animals meant that not all the population needed to dedicate their time and energy to farming; some could now learn specialized skills such as crafts or trade. The building of permanent settlements where skills could be developed brought about the conditions necessary for the first growth of towns. But several thousand years elapsed between the beginnings of agriculture and the rise of what we call civilization about 6,000 years ago.

27. According to paragraph 1, what condition allowed people to learn specialized skills? The ability to migrate The growth of population The surplus of farm products The spread of settlements Paragraph 1 is marked with an arrow [->].

[->] In the Neolithic period, starting around 10.000 years ago, perhaps the most important economic revolution in human history occurred - the commencement of agriculture and the domestication of animals for human consumption. From this point in time, people could start to rely on a more consistent and much increased food supply. As a corollary of this, considerably larger populations could be supported and people could settle in one place without the need to migrate in search of food supplies. Equally important, the surpluses of crops and animals meant that not all the population needed to dedicate their time and energy to farming; some could now learn specialized skills such as crafts or trade. The building of permanent settlements where skills could be developed brought about the conditions necessary for the first growth of towns. But several thousand years elapsed between the beginnings of agriculture and the rise of what we call civilization about 6,000 years ago.

28. According to paragraph 1, why did people migrate before the Neolithic revolution? To search for better climates To improve trading skills To avoid enemies To find food Paragraph 1 is marked with an arrow [->].

-> In the Neolithic period, starting around 10,000 years ago, perhaps the most important economic revolution in human history occurred - the commencement of agriculture and the domestication of animals for human consumption From this point in time, people could start to rely on a more consistent and much increased food supply. As a corollary of this, considerably larger populations could be supported and people could settle in one place without the need to migrate in search of food supplies. Equally important, the surpluses of crops and animals meant that not all the population needed to dedicate their time and energy to farming; some could now learn specialized skills such as crafts or trade. The building of permanent settlements where skills could be developed brought about the conditions necessary for the first growth of towns. But several thousand years elapsed between the beginnings of agriculture and the rise of what we call civilization about 6,000 years ago.

29. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. The conditions for the growth of the first towns were established in permanent settlements where skills developed. The first towns and the skills that were developed were also found in the earliest permanent settlements. Skills were developed and early permanent settlements were established before towns could be built. The conditions necessary for permanent settlements and the practice of skills were found in the first towns.

In the Neolithic period, starting around 10,000 years ago, perhaps the most important economic revolution in human history occurred - the commencement of agriculture and the domestication of animals for human consumption, From this point in time, people could start to rely on a more consistent and much increased food supply. As a corollary of this, considerably larger populations could be supported and people could settle in one place without the need to migrate in search of food supplies. Equally important, the surpluses of crops and animals meant that not all the population needed to dedicate their time and energy to farming; some could now learn specialized skills such as crafts or trade. The building of permanent settlements where skills could be developed brought about the conditions necessary for the first growth of towns. But several thousand years elapsed between the beginnings of agriculture and the rise of what we call civilization about 6,000 years ago.

30. The word "independently" in the passage is closest in meaning to separately collectively individually originally

Recent evidence seems to indicate that while the Neolithic revolution first took place in the Middle East — in the valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates and of the Nile - it occurred independently in other areas of the world. The origins of the revolution are not known in great detail, but it is known that the wild grasses that were the ancestors of wheat and barley grew natively in the Eastern Mediterranean area. It may be that Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) foragers simply supplemented their diet by reaping these wild grasses, and later came to understand the advantage of returning some of the grain to the soil as seed. Whatever the case, we know that at an early date people living in the Eastern Mediterranean region, who lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering, began to make sickles, with stone teeth set in bone handles. Such tools were certainly used for reaping some grass crop, whether cultivated or wild.

31. According to paragraph 2, sickles found in the eastern Mediterranean are evidence that the makers of these sickles were skilled craftsmen wild grasses were eaten before domesticated grasses the sickles were useful for fishing and hunting grasses were cut down for food consumption Paragraph 2 is marked with an arrow [->].

-> Recent evidence seems to indicate that while the Neolithic revolution first took place in the Middle East - in the valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates and of the Nile - it occurred independently in other areas of the world. The origins of the revolution are not known in great detail, but it is known that the wild grasses that were the ancestors of wheat and barley grew natively in the Eastern Mediterranean area. It may be that Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) foragers simply supplemented their diet by reaping these wild grasses, and later came to understand the advantage of returning some of the grain to the soil as seed. Whatever the case, we know that at an early date people living in the Eastern Mediterranean region, who lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering, began to make sickles, with stone teeth set in bone handles. Such tools were certainly used for reaping some grass crop, whether cultivated or wild.

32. The word "fertile" in the passage is closest in meaning to forceful productive creative shallow

Both in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the periodic floods of great rivers such as the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates not only supplied water to the fields but also brought down fresh soil in the form of fertile muddy sediments. This sediment was deposited on flood plains around such rivers, thus annually restoring the fruitfulness of the land. This regular flooding and sediment deposit allowed these early farmers to continue cultivating the same fields repeatedly for generations without exhausting the fertility of the soil, and crop surpluses were, therefore, available to allow an increase in population and a growth in trade and skills development. The area available for cultivation was expanded when people learned to draw off the river water into man-made irrigation canals and ditches, watering and fertilizing larger and larger areas of land.

33. According to paragraph 4, why was it easy for people to grow food near large rivers? Flooding eroded the soil. The soil was continuously enriched. Surplus crops were regular. The population was large enough. Paragraph 4 is marked with an arrow [->].

-> Both in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the periodic floods of great rivers such as the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates not only supplied water to the fields but also brought down fresh soil in the form of fertile muddy sediments. This sediment was deposited on flood plains around such rivers, thus annually restoring the fruitfulness of the land. This regular flooding and sediment deposit allowed these early farmers to continue cultivating the same fields repeatedly for generations without exhausting the fertility of the soil, and crop surpluses were, therefore, available to allow an increase in population and a growth in trade and skills development. The area available for cultivation was expanded when people learned to draw off the river water into man-made irrigation canals and ditches, watering and fertilizing larger and larger areas of land.

34. According to paragraph 4, why did early Neolithic people build irrigation ditches? To increase the growing areas To enlarge the fertilized areas To produce crop surpluses To water the early canals Paragraph 4 is marked with an arrow [->].

-> Both in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the periodic floods of great rivers such as the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates not only supplied water to the fields but also brought down fresh soil in the form of fertile muddy sediments. This sediment was deposited on flood plains around such rivers, thus annually restoring the fruitfulness of the land. This regular flooding and sediment deposit allowed these early farmers to continue cultivating the same fields repeatedly for generations without exhausting the fertility of the soil, and crop surpluses were, therefore, available to allow an increase in population and a growth in trade and skills development. The area available for cultivation was expanded when people learned to draw off the river water into man-made irrigation canals and ditches, watering and fertilizing larger and larger areas of land.

35. The word "This" in the passage refers to irrigation hot climate evaporation loss of water

The practice of artificial irrigation affected the soil in various ways, but not always for the good. Since the channels were often shallow, there was frequently a great loss of water through evaporation in a hot climate. This could lead to a marked increase in soil salinity, since the salts held in solution or suspension were deposited as the water evaporated, and too much salinity could eventually damage the soil. But overall the effect of the irrigation system was to create an artificial environment - and to some extent an artificial climate - with a range of conditions that favored both human experiment and agricultural development. Beyond this, settled agriculture led to the development of property rights and hence to a legal framework and mechanisms to enforce laws. This in turn led to a more extensive and hierarchical government organization and hence to the development of large, stable communities.

36. According to paragraph 5, what negative effect did the building of irrigation ditches create? Too much salt in the soil A worsening climate Destruction of settlements Too much experimentation Paragraph 5 is marked with an arrow [->].

-> The practice of artificial irrigation affected the soil in various ways, but not always for the good. Since the channels were often shallow, there was frequently a great loss of water through evaporation in a hot climate. This could lead to a marked increase in soil salinity, since the salts held in solution or suspension were deposited as the water evaporated, and too much salinity could eventually damage the soil. But overall the effect of the irrigation system was to create an artificial environment - and to some extent an artificial climate - with a range of conditions that favored both human experiment and agricultural development. Beyond this, settled agriculture led to the development of property rights and hence to a legal framework and mechanisms to enforce laws. This in turn led to a more extensive and hierarchical government organization and hence to the development of large, stable communities.

37. What can be inferred from paragraph 5 about the development of an organized government? Stable communities function best with a hierarchical government. Human experiment is most often practiced if government enforces laws. An organized government is necessary to extend artificial irrigation. The need to enforce property laws required government organization. Paragraph 5 is marked with an arrow [->]

-> The practice of artificial irrigation affected the soil in various ways, but not always for the good. Since the channels were often shallow, there was frequently a great loss of water through evaporation in a hot climate. This could lead to a marked increase in soil salinity, since the salts held in solution or suspension were deposited as the water evaporated, and too much salinity could eventually damage the soil. But overall the effect of the irrigation system was to create an artificial environment - and to some extent an artificial climate - with a range of conditions that favored both human experiment and agricultural development. Beyond this, settled agriculture led to the development of property rights and hence to a legal framework and mechanisms to enforce laws. This in turn led to a more extensive and hierarchical government organization and hence to the development of large, stable communities.

38. Look at the four squares [?] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. In much of the Middle East region, the earth was mainly watered not by rain but by natural irrigation. Where would the sentence best fit? Choose the letter of the square that shows where the sentence should be added. A B C D

[A] Both in Egypt and Mesopotamia, the periodic floods of great rivers such as the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates not only supplied water to the fields but also brought down fresh soil in the form of fertile muddy sediments. [B] This sediment was deposited on flood plains around such rivers, thus annually restoring the fruitfulness of the land. [C] This regular flooding and sediment deposit allowed these early farmers to continue cultivating the same fields repeatedly for generations without exhausting the fertility of the soil, and crop surpluses were, therefore, available to allow an increase in population and a growth in trade and skills development. [D] The area available for cultivation was expanded when people learned to draw off the river water into man-made irrigation canals and ditches, watering and fertilizing larger and larger areas of land.

39. Directions: An introductory sentence of a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Write the letters of the answer choices in the spaces where they belong. Refer to the full passage. During the Neolithic period, people started to domesticate animals, grow crops, and build permanent settlements, leading eventually to the beginnings of civilization. * * * Answer Choices A) It is likely that early hunters ate wild grasses and later understood how to cultivate, reap, and grind grain. B) The floodwaters of rivers in the Middle East enriched the soil, which led to food surpluses and an enlarged population. C) At one time, people in the Eastern Mediterranean region lived by hunting animals, catching fish, and gathering edible plants. D) We know that early people learned how to cultivate grasses since they developed a simple type of grinding mill. E) The large increase in the number of irrigation canals led to the worsening of the soil condition due to deposits of salt. F) Artificial irrigation increased the arable area, and despite some negative effects, overall this development led to improvement in life and eventually to an organized government system.